13. Heroes and Villains of Ancient Africa: The Songhai Empire

My Name is Sunni Ali: First Great Ruler of the Songhai Empire

I was born in the town of Ali Kolon near the city of Gao around the year 1445. My people, the Songhai, had long lived along the Niger River, fishing its waters and farming its fertile banks. From a young age, I was drawn to the arts of war and leadership. Gao had once been mighty, but by my time it had fallen under the shadow of the Mali Empire. I dreamed of restoring its greatness.

Seizing Power

When the throne of Gao fell to me in 1464, I knew the time had come. The empire I inherited was small, but the Niger River carried wealth and trade. I gathered a strong army of horsemen, archers, and a navy of war canoes. With them, I began expanding Songhai’s borders, striking fear into all who challenged me.

The Conqueror of Cities

My greatest victories were the cities of Timbuktu and Djenné. Timbuktu was the jewel of the Sahara trade routes, full of scholars, merchants, and gold. In 1468, I brought it under my control. Soon after, I laid siege to Djenné, a city that resisted me for seven long years before it too bowed to Songhai. With these victories, I had turned my kingdom into an empire.

Warrior King and Sorcerer

I was a man of both sword and spirit. My enemies feared me, not only for my cavalry that thundered across the plains, but for my reputation as a sorcerer who commanded the powers of magic. I was not always gentle. Some accused me of cruelty, for I punished those who resisted with severity. Yet to my followers, I was their shield and protector, the one who made Songhai rich and strong.

Religion and Power

Though I respected Islam, I did not surrender fully to its law. My empire was home to many peoples and many beliefs. I honored traditional spirits and rituals as much as the Muslim faith, for I knew unity came from balance. Some Muslim scholars resented me for this, but I ruled not for one faith alone, but for all my people.

My Final Campaigns and Death

For nearly thirty years I led my armies across the lands of West Africa. From the forests of the south to the sands of the Sahara, I made kingdoms bow to Songhai. Yet even kings are mortal. In 1492, as I returned from campaign, I drowned while crossing the Niger River. My death left my empire shaken, and struggles for power soon followed.

My Legacy

I, Sunni Ali, gave birth to the might of the Songhai Empire. Though others came after me, none matched the raw strength of my conquests. I laid the foundation for Songhai’s golden age, when trade, scholarship, and power made Gao and Timbuktu renowned across Africa and beyond. My name lived on as both feared and celebrated, for I was the warrior king who forged an empire with fire and steel.

The Rise of Songhai and the City of Gao – Told by Sunni Ali

Before I was born, my people lived along the great bend of the Niger River. Its waters fed our crops, its fish filled our nets, and its channels carried merchants and travelers between the forests of the south and the deserts of the north. It was this river that gave life to Gao, the city that became our capital, and it was here that the Songhai first began to rise.

The Beginnings of Gao

Long before my rule, Gao was only a trading post, a place where salt from the Sahara met gold and kola nuts from the south. Caravans passed through, and slowly the city grew into a kingdom. The Mali Empire once held us under its shadow, but our kings and warriors guarded our strength, waiting for the day when Songhai would break free and claim its destiny.

From Kingdom to Empire

By the time I came to power in 1464, Gao was no longer a mere town. It had become a thriving city, filled with merchants, artisans, and warriors. Our fleets of canoes patrolled the Niger, carrying goods and soldiers alike. I knew that if Songhai was to rise beyond Gao, we would need to harness both the wealth of trade and the power of the sword.

The Call to Greatness

It was clear to me that the time of Mali’s dominance was ending. Their empire was weakened, and their grip on the trade routes had loosened. I saw the chance for Songhai to take its place as the greatest power in West Africa. From Gao, I set my eyes upon the surrounding lands—on Timbuktu, Djenné, and the rich valleys that stretched beyond the horizon.

The Foundation of Power

Thus, the rise of Songhai began not with conquest alone, but with Gao itself—its river, its merchants, and its people. From that city, our warriors marched, our traders prospered, and our scholars began to gather. Gao was the heart that beat life into our kingdom, and it was from this heart that the Songhai Empire was born.

The Time of Opportunity: Military Expansion and Conquest – Told by Sunni Ali

When I took the throne in 1464, the Mali Empire, once mighty, was beginning to lose its hold over the Niger Valley. Their kings no longer commanded the same strength, and their cities longed for stability. I knew this was the moment for Songhai to rise, and I prepared my people for conquest.

Forging My Army

To build an empire, I needed an army unlike any that had come before. I gathered thousands of horsemen from the open plains, men trained to ride swiftly and strike with precision. I also commanded fleets of war canoes that patrolled the Niger, carrying archers and soldiers across its waters. With cavalry on land and ships on the river, my army could strike with speed and power in every direction.

Campaigns Against Mali

Mali’s weakness gave me the chance to expand. I pushed my forces against their borders, driving them back and claiming the rich lands along the Niger. One by one, towns and villages that had once bowed to Mali came under the banner of Songhai. My enemies quickly learned that resistance meant destruction, and my name spread as a king both feared and respected.

The Capture of Timbuktu

The jewel I sought most was Timbuktu, the great city of trade and learning. In 1468, I marched my armies against it. The city fell into my hands, and with it came vast wealth from caravans that crossed the Sahara. Though scholars sometimes spoke against me, the merchants filled my coffers with gold and salt, strengthening my empire’s power. Timbuktu became one of my greatest prizes.

The Siege of Djenné

Not long after, I turned to Djenné, another rich city along the Niger. Its people resisted me for seven long years, but I did not relent. At last, in 1475, the city fell to my army. With both Timbuktu and Djenné under my control, I held the key to the trade routes of West Africa.

Master of the River and Plains

By combining my cavalry with my navy, I created a force unmatched in our world. My horsemen thundered across the grasslands, while my war canoes brought power to the river. Together, they secured my conquests and expanded Songhai’s reach further than ever before.

The Birth of an Empire

Through these campaigns, I transformed Songhai from a kingdom into an empire. Timbuktu and Djenné became the pillars of my rule, while Gao remained the heart of our power. With trade, soldiers, and the Niger River as my allies, I forged a realm that would stand among the greatest in Africa’s history.

Religion and the Balance of Power – Told by Sunni Ali

When I rose to power, my empire stretched across many peoples and traditions. Along the Niger, some followed Islam, brought by traders and scholars from the north. Others still honored the spirits of the river, the ancestors, and the land. To rule only by one path would have torn my empire apart. I knew that strength lay in balance, and so I governed with both faiths in mind.

My Relationship with Islam

I respected Islam, for it bound Songhai to the great trade routes and gave us standing with kingdoms far beyond the desert. In Timbuktu and Djenné, scholars filled the mosques and taught the wisdom of the Qur’an. I prayed with them at times and allowed judges to apply sharia in matters of law. Yet I did not let the scholars dictate my rule, for I was king of warriors and farmers as well as Muslims.

The Power of Tradition

At the same time, I honored the traditional beliefs of my people. The spirits of the river and land had long guided the Songhai. I took part in rituals, gave offerings, and showed respect to the old ways. Many called me a sorcerer, believing I held powers beyond the sword, and I did not dismiss such stories. They gave me strength in the eyes of those who feared that Islam alone would erase their heritage.

Balancing Unity and Control

This balance of faith was not without its critics. Muslim scholars in Timbuktu condemned me, calling me impious and cruel. Yet the people saw that I gave room for both belief and tradition. By doing so, I kept my empire united. Traders followed me for the wealth I secured, scholars remained under my protection, and farmers and warriors trusted that I respected the ways of their ancestors.

Religion as a Tool of Rule

I did not favor one faith to the ruin of another. Instead, I used both to strengthen my power. Islam gave me legitimacy in the eyes of the desert and beyond, while traditional beliefs gave me loyalty at home. By weaving the two together, I held together an empire vast and diverse, where no single faith could tear apart what I had built.

My Name is Askia Muhammad I: Emperor of the Songhai Empire

I was born around 1443, a soldier in the service of Sunni Ali, the great conqueror of Songhai. Though I admired his strength, I disagreed with his ways, especially his disregard for Islam. After Sunni Ali’s death, his son Sunni Baru took the throne, but he too resisted Islam’s law. I, Muhammad, challenged him. At the Battle of Anfao in 1493, my army defeated his, and I claimed the throne. From that moment I became Askia Muhammad, ruler of Songhai.

Building the Empire

Unlike Sunni Ali, I did not rely solely on force. I sought to bring order, stability, and justice. I divided the empire into provinces, appointing governors to oversee them. I created a system of taxation to strengthen the treasury and formed a standing army to guard our vast lands. By doing this, I transformed Songhai from a kingdom of conquest into an organized empire.

My Pilgrimage to Mecca

In 1497, I undertook the great pilgrimage across the Sahara to the holy city of Mecca. My caravan was said to be magnificent, carrying gold, gifts, and soldiers. In Mecca, I was honored with the title of Caliph of the Sudan, recognized as the defender of Islam in West Africa. The journey strengthened my ties with the wider Muslim world and brought scholars and merchants to Songhai.

Champion of Islam

I established Islamic law, or sharia, in my empire, appointing judges and scholars to interpret it. I encouraged learning, supporting schools and universities in Timbuktu, Djenné, and Gao. Scholars from across the Sahara came to Songhai, making our empire a beacon of Islamic learning and culture. I sought to rule as both a just Muslim leader and a strong African king.

Trade and Prosperity

Under my rule, trade flourished. Gold, salt, slaves, and kola nuts passed through the markets of Gao and Timbuktu. Caravans stretched across the desert to Morocco and Egypt, while traders from the forest lands brought goods from the south. With wealth came not only prosperity, but also power, for Songhai became the center of commerce in West Africa.

Challenges to My Rule

Though I ruled wisely, I was not without enemies. My reforms angered some traditionalists, and my reliance on scholars and bureaucrats made me appear distant from the warriors who had built the empire. In my later years, rivals within my own family rose against me. My son Musa rebelled, and in 1528 I was overthrown, cast aside by those I had once led.

My Legacy

Even in defeat, my legacy endured. I had built the Songhai Empire into one of the largest and most powerful states in African history. My devotion to Islam and scholarship left a lasting mark, as did my reforms in governance and trade. Where Sunni Ali forged an empire through conquest, I gave it structure and faith. To many, I remain Askia the Great, the ruler who carried Songhai to its height.

Government and Administration Reforms – Told by Askia Muhammad I

When I seized the throne in 1493, I understood that conquest alone could not sustain an empire. Sunni Ali had expanded Songhai through force, but I sought to make it endure through order. To govern such vast lands, I needed more than warriors. I needed structure, laws, and trusted men to carry my will across every corner of the empire.

Dividing the Empire

I divided Songhai into provinces so that no city or region would stand apart from the crown. Each province was overseen by a governor chosen for loyalty and ability. These governors collected taxes, organized defense, and ensured that justice was carried out. By this, I made sure that the authority of Gao reached even the most distant lands.

Appointing Trusted Leaders

No ruler can watch all things. I appointed trusted officials, men of discipline, to oversee the army, the treasury, and the courts. The governors reported back to me, but I also placed inspectors above them, so no single man could gather too much power. This chain of responsibility tied all authority back to the throne and prevented rebellion.

The Treasury and Taxes

I established a system of taxation that brought wealth into the empire while protecting the people from disorder. Merchants paid tolls on their caravans, farmers gave a portion of their crops, and traders contributed from their profits. These funds strengthened the army, paid the officials, and supported the scholars who gave our empire knowledge and learning.

Maintaining Justice

I knew that power without justice would bring ruin. I appointed judges who enforced sharia law where Islam was practiced, while also respecting the customs of traditional communities. By blending law with fairness, I kept unity among people of many faiths and traditions.

The Strength of Central Power

Through these reforms, I transformed Songhai into more than a realm of conquest. I made it into a state that could endure. With governors, officials, and systems of law, the empire no longer depended only on the strength of one man. It had become an organized and disciplined power, able to stand as one of the greatest kingdoms of Africa.

Islamic Scholarship and Timbuktu’s Golden Age - Askia Muhammad I

From the moment I became ruler, I knew that power was not built only on armies and gold, but also on knowledge. To strengthen my empire, I turned to the scholars who gathered in Timbuktu, Djenné, and Gao. They were the guardians of wisdom, and through them, Songhai would shine as a beacon of learning in the Muslim world.

Timbuktu and Its Scholars

Timbuktu was the jewel of scholarship in my empire. Its mosques and schools were filled with men who studied law, science, astronomy, and the Qur’an. The University of Sankore stood at its heart, a place where thousands of students learned from renowned teachers. I gave my protection to these scholars, ensuring that their work could continue without fear of war or disorder.

The Promotion of Islamic Law

I encouraged the use of sharia, Islamic law, throughout my lands. Judges trained in Islamic learning were appointed to interpret disputes and guide the people. Their rulings brought order and fairness, linking Songhai to the wider Muslim world. By strengthening the role of law, I gave my empire both justice and legitimacy in the eyes of other Islamic rulers.

The Spread of Knowledge

I welcomed scholars from Morocco, Egypt, and beyond, inviting them to teach in Timbuktu and to advise my court. I encouraged the writing and copying of books so that knowledge would not be lost. In my time, Timbuktu’s libraries grew vast, filled with manuscripts that covered subjects from medicine to mathematics. Our wealth in learning became as valuable as our wealth in gold.

Faith and Scholarship United

I believed that faith and scholarship must walk hand in hand. By honoring Islam and its teachers, I tied my people to a greater community that stretched across deserts and seas. By supporting knowledge, I ensured that Songhai would be remembered not only as a land of warriors, but also as a land of wisdom.

The Golden Age of Songhai

Under my rule, Timbuktu and its schools flourished as never before. Students and merchants traveled from faraway lands to learn within my empire. This golden age of scholarship became one of Songhai’s proudest achievements. Even after my fall, the memory of this era endured, a testament to the greatness of Songhai and to the strength of knowledge guided by faith.

Trade Networks and Economic Wealth – Told by Askia Muhammad I

An empire as vast as Songhai could not stand on armies alone. It was trade that gave us strength, wealth, and influence. The Niger River carried goods within our borders, while the desert trails connected us to lands far beyond. From salt and gold to slaves and kola nuts, commerce flowed through our cities and markets, enriching both nobles and commoners.

The Salt of the Sahara

Salt was one of the most valuable treasures of our time. It preserved food, strengthened the body, and served as currency. Caravans carried great slabs of salt from the mines of Taghaza and Taoudenni, crossing the desert with their camels until they reached Timbuktu and Gao. From there, salt spread across West Africa, traded for gold, food, and other goods.

The Wealth of Gold

Gold was the treasure that made Songhai known across the world. It came from the lands of the south, brought by traders who passed through our markets. From Gao and Timbuktu, it journeyed north across the Sahara to Morocco, Egypt, and even Europe. The demand for gold gave us power, and the taxes collected from its trade filled the coffers of my empire.

The Trade in Slaves

Among the goods traded were also people. Prisoners of war and captives from distant lands were sold into slavery. Some were taken across the desert to serve in households or armies of foreign rulers. Though harsh, this trade was part of the system that bound us to the markets of North Africa and beyond.

The Value of Kola Nuts

From the forest regions to the south came kola nuts, a small but treasured good. They were valued for their stimulating effects and became a common trade item in our markets. Along with gold, they symbolized the wealth of the southern lands and the connection between Songhai and the regions beyond the savannah.

The Prosperity of the Cities

Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné grew rich from these networks. Caravans arrived daily, bringing life and movement to our cities. Merchants, scholars, and travelers filled the markets, and taxes from their goods strengthened the empire. Trade made Songhai not only powerful but also respected across Africa and the wider Muslim world.

The Empire’s Fortune

Through trade, Songhai reached the height of its power. Our wealth funded the army, supported scholars, and kept the empire strong. It was through salt, gold, slaves, and kola nuts that my empire prospered, and it was trade that made Songhai one of the greatest powers of its age.

My Name is Leo Africanus: Traveler and Chronicler of Africa

I was born around the year 1494 in Granada, a city that had once been a proud Muslim kingdom but had fallen to the Spanish Crown just two years before my birth. My family, like many others, fled across the sea to North Africa. We settled in Fez, in Morocco, where I was raised and educated. From a young age I learned Arabic, law, and literature, but my heart was drawn to travel.

My Journeys Across Africa

In the service of my uncle, a diplomat, and later for the rulers of Fez, I journeyed across the deserts and great kingdoms of Africa. I visited Timbuktu, Gao, and other cities of the Songhai Empire. I crossed the Sahara in long caravans, passing through oases and salt mines, and saw the exchange of gold, ivory, and slaves. These travels gave me knowledge of lands few Europeans had ever seen.

Witnessing the Songhai Empire

When I arrived in Timbuktu and Gao, I marveled at the wealth and learning of the Songhai Empire. Timbuktu especially amazed me. Its markets overflowed with salt, gold, and cloth. Scholars filled its mosques and schools, reading and teaching from vast libraries of books. Gao, the capital, stood proudly on the Niger River, a city of trade and authority. Songhai was unlike anything in Europe had imagined of Africa—rich, learned, and powerful.

Captured and Taken to Rome

In 1518, while returning from one of my journeys, I was captured by Christian pirates off the coast of the Mediterranean. They carried me to Italy and presented me as a prisoner to Pope Leo X. Instead of condemning me, the Pope treated me kindly. I converted to Christianity, taking the name Johannes Leo de Medici in honor of my patron. From that time, Europeans called me Leo Africanus.

Writing My Book

In Rome I used my knowledge to write a great work, The Description of Africa. In it, I recorded all that I had seen of the lands and peoples of Africa—its kingdoms, cities, rivers, deserts, and cultures. My descriptions of Timbuktu, Gao, and the Songhai Empire opened the eyes of Europeans to the grandeur of Africa. Though some doubted my words, my book remained one of the best sources about Africa for centuries.

My Later Years

My life after Rome is uncertain. Some say I returned to North Africa and to Islam; others believe I remained in Europe. What is certain is that my travels and my book ensured that my name would be remembered.

My Legacy

I, Leo Africanus, was both a man of two worlds and a bridge between them. I was born a Muslim in Granada, lived as a traveler in Africa, and became a Christian scholar in Europe. Through my writings, I carried the story of Africa’s great empires, especially Songhai, into the minds of Europeans. I preserved the memory of Timbuktu’s learning and Gao’s wealth, so that the world would know Africa not as a land of shadows, but as a land of light and power.

An Outsider’s View of Songhai – Told by Leo Africanus

As a young man traveling across the Sahara, I entered the lands of the Songhai Empire and found myself astonished by what I witnessed. Many in Europe imagined Africa as a place of little learning or wealth, but what I saw defied those beliefs. The empire stretched wide, and its cities pulsed with life, trade, and culture.

The Splendor of Timbuktu

Timbuktu stood as one of the most remarkable cities I had ever visited. Its markets overflowed with goods—salt from the desert, gold from the south, fine cloth, and countless other treasures. Yet what struck me most was not only its wealth, but its scholarship. The city was filled with learned men, scholars who studied law, science, and religion. The mosques were grand, and the libraries vast, containing books that rivaled those of Europe.

The City of Gao

In Gao, the capital of Songhai, I saw the strength of royal authority. The king ruled with great power, and the city was a center of command and trade. Gao’s position along the Niger River made it a hub of activity. Merchants gathered there in great numbers, bringing their goods from distant lands, and the wealth of the empire flowed through its streets.

The Markets of Djenné

Djenné, though smaller than Timbuktu, was no less impressive. Built along the river, it was alive with the noise of markets, the calls of merchants, and the bustle of boats bringing goods. Its people were skilled in trade, and its position made it a meeting point for both desert caravans and river commerce.

The Life of the People

Everywhere I traveled in Songhai, I saw evidence of prosperity. Farmers brought grain to the cities, fishermen pulled their catches from the Niger, and artisans crafted goods for both local use and distant trade. Music and storytelling filled the evenings, while the rhythms of daily work and devotion carried the days.

A World of Wealth and Learning

To me, an outsider, Songhai was a wonder. Its wealth rivaled kingdoms I had known in Europe and North Africa, and its dedication to scholarship gave it a brightness few expected. Timbuktu’s reputation as a center of learning was no exaggeration, and the power of Gao testified to the strength of its rulers.

My Lasting Impression

When I later wrote of Songhai, I wished the world to know that Africa was not a land of shadows but of great empires, bustling cities, and learned men. The Songhai I saw was proud, powerful, and full of life—a civilization whose memory deserved to be carried beyond the desert and across the seas.

Cultural Life and Everyday People – Told by Leo Africanus

In every city I visited within the Songhai Empire, the markets were the heart of daily life. Merchants filled the squares with goods from across Africa. Some sold salt brought from the desert mines, others traded gold dust and precious stones, while many offered food, cloth, and household wares. The noise of bargaining, the colors of fabrics, and the scent of spices created a life and energy that spoke of prosperity.

The Work of the Artisans

Artisans played an important role in this society. Blacksmiths forged tools and weapons, potters shaped vessels for trade and home, and weavers produced fine cloth admired even in distant lands. Their skill was respected, for the empire’s wealth was not only measured in gold and salt but also in the crafts of its people. In the evening, I often saw these workers resting together, their conversations filled with pride in their craft.

The Life of Farmers and Fishermen

Beyond the cities, the fields and river sustained the empire. Farmers tilled the land, growing grain and millet that fed both villages and cities. Along the Niger, fishermen cast their nets and returned with catches that filled the markets each day. Their work was steady and vital, and though they lived simply, their efforts kept Songhai strong.

The Role of Wealth in Daily Life

Songhai’s wealth shaped every aspect of daily living. In the homes of the prosperous, meals were plentiful, clothing fine, and books treasured. Yet even the common people benefited from the empire’s stability, for trade and order meant security and opportunity. While there were differences between rich and poor, the overall prosperity of the land could be felt in the energy of its people.

The Spirit of the Community

What struck me most was the sense of community. Music and storytelling brought people together in the evenings. Families gathered, and griots recounted the histories of kings and ancestors. Religious devotion also shaped daily life, with prayer and ritual guiding the people. This harmony of work, faith, and family gave the empire strength beyond its riches.

A Society of Many Hands

The greatness of Songhai was not only in its rulers or its scholars but in the countless men and women whose labor built its foundation. The merchants, artisans, farmers, and fishermen each contributed to the wealth and culture that I witnessed. To me, they were proof that Songhai’s empire was alive not just in its power, but in the daily lives of its people.

My Name is Judda Pasha: Moroccan Commander and Conqueror of Songhai

I was born in Spain, a man of Andalusian descent, raised in a world where the power of the sword often determined one’s fate. In time I entered the service of the Sultan of Morocco. My skills as a soldier and leader earned me respect, and soon I was placed at the head of armies. My greatest task would come not in my homeland, but across the sands of the Sahara.

The Sultan’s Command

The Sultan of Morocco, Ahmad al-Mansur, desired the riches of the great Songhai Empire. He longed for its gold, its salt mines, and control of the trade routes that stretched across the desert. In 1590, he entrusted me, Judda Pasha, with the command of an expeditionary force. With fewer than five thousand men, many armed with muskets and cannon, I was to march across the Sahara and break an empire many times our size.

The March Across the Desert

The journey was harsh. We crossed vast stretches of sand, where men and beasts alike struggled against thirst and exhaustion. Still, we pressed forward, for the prize before us was great. By the time we reached the borders of Songhai in 1591, my men were hardened by the desert’s cruelty and ready for battle.

The Battle of Tondibi

The Songhai king, Askia Ishaq II, gathered an army said to number tens of thousands. Yet their weapons were bows, spears, and swords, while we bore the firepower of Europe—arquebuses and cannon. At Tondibi, the two forces clashed. Though brave, the Songhai could not withstand the thunder of our guns. Their warriors scattered, their empire broken in a single day.

The Fall of Gao and Timbuktu

After Tondibi, we marched upon the cities of Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné. The once-great centers of trade and learning fell to Moroccan rule. Yet conquest brought not peace but division. Songhai’s strength dissolved into rival chiefs and factions, and though Morocco claimed victory, it could never truly control so vast a land.

The Struggles of Rule

I remained as governor, enforcing Moroccan power in the Niger Valley. But our numbers were few, and resistance was constant. The people of Songhai did not easily bow to foreign masters. The empire was shattered, but its spirit endured in those who defied us. Morocco held Timbuktu, but the wealth and stability al-Mansur had dreamed of slipped through his grasp.

My Legacy

I, Judda Pasha, was the man who ended the great Songhai Empire. My name is tied forever to its fall, though in truth, it was the Sultan’s ambition and the power of new weapons that sealed Songhai’s fate. I crossed the desert with an army, shattered a kingdom, and left behind an Africa forever changed. Where once Songhai had ruled as the mightiest empire of the western Sudan, after me there was only fragmentation and decline.

The Moroccan Invasion of 1591 – Told by Judda Pasha

I was chosen by Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur of Morocco to lead a bold expedition. The Sultan’s desire was not small. He sought the gold of the Sudan, the salt mines of Taghaza, and control of the trade routes that carried wealth across the Sahara. Songhai, though mighty, held these treasures, and Morocco longed to seize them. With fewer than five thousand men, I was tasked with conquering an empire many times our size.

Crossing the Sahara

Our march across the desert in 1590 tested both men and beasts. The sun burned us by day, and the cold cut us by night. Camels stumbled under the weight of supplies, and soldiers suffered thirst, yet we pressed onward. Our strength lay not in numbers but in weapons. We carried arquebuses, matchlock muskets, and cannon—tools of war unknown to most in Songhai.

The Enemy Gathers

When we reached the heart of the Niger Valley, the Songhai king, Askia Ishaq II, gathered his forces. Tens of thousands of warriors stood ready, their courage unquestioned. They wielded spears, bows, and swords, and their cavalry thundered across the plains. They trusted their numbers and their valor to crush us, but they had never faced the firepower we carried.

The Battle of Tondibi

At Tondibi in 1591, the two armies met. The Songhai charged with fierce determination, driving herds of cattle before them to break our lines. Yet when our cannon roared and our muskets fired, the earth shook. The cattle turned in terror, trampling their own warriors. Volley after volley cut down the ranks of Songhai. Their bravery could not withstand the storm of gunpowder. By the day’s end, their mighty army was broken.

The Fall of Songhai’s Power

After Tondibi, the power of Songhai collapsed. Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné fell into our hands, cities that had once been proud centers of trade and learning. Though resistance lingered in the countryside, the empire’s strength was shattered. What had been the greatest power of West Africa lay in ruins, undone not by numbers but by the fire of Moroccan guns.

The Aftermath of Victory

Though we had won, the task of ruling was far from simple. Songhai’s lands were vast, and its people did not easily bow to foreign masters. Yet the Sultan’s aim had been achieved: the wealth of gold and salt, and control of the desert trade, now flowed toward Morocco. I, Judda Pasha, had carried out his command and brought down the empire of Songhai with a single decisive blow.

Decline and Legacy of Songhai – Told by Judda Pasha

After the Battle of Tondibi in 1591, the Songhai Empire no longer stood as one. Its armies were broken, its rulers fled, and its great cities lay in Moroccan hands. Yet victory on the battlefield did not bring true control. Songhai was vast, stretching across deserts, rivers, and forests, and the people would not easily submit. Instead of one empire, the land fractured into smaller kingdoms and chiefdoms, each seeking to claim power where Songhai’s strength had once held firm.

The Fall of Timbuktu

Timbuktu, the jewel of learning and trade, soon declined. Under Songhai it had flourished, with scholars filling its libraries and caravans filling its markets. After our conquest, instability weakened it. Many scholars fled, books were lost or neglected, and trade routes shifted away. The city remained, but its glory faded, no longer the shining beacon it had been under the rule of Askia Muhammad and his successors.

The Struggles of Moroccan Rule

Morocco sought to control the Niger Valley, but distance and resistance made it difficult. My forces remained, but our numbers were few, and rebellions continued. Instead of a unified empire, we presided over a land divided and restless. The wealth Sultan Ahmad had dreamed of did not flow as he had hoped, for an empire once united had now splintered into pieces too many to hold together.

The Memory of Songhai

Yet though the empire was gone, its memory endured. The people still spoke of Sunni Ali’s conquests and Askia Muhammad’s reforms. The traditions of scholarship, trade, and cultural strength lived on in the hearts of West Africans. Even broken, Songhai’s spirit remained, a reminder of what had once been achieved along the Niger.

The Legacy of Greatness

I had come as a conqueror, and I brought down the Songhai Empire. But even as I reflect on my deeds, I know that Songhai left a mark no battle could erase. Its wealth, its scholars, its traditions of governance and commerce shaped the lands long after its fall. To this day, its story is told with pride, and the name of Songhai still carries weight in the identity of West Africa.

Sunni Ali’s Reputation: Hero or Tyrant? – Told by Sunni Ali and Leo Africanus

Sunni Ali: Defender of the Empire

Many call me a tyrant, but those who speak so often lived in comfort behind city walls. I defended the Niger and its people against threats from every side. Without my cavalry and navy, Songhai would have been swallowed by rivals. When I took Timbuktu and Djenné, I ensured that trade flowed into Gao, strengthening our lands. My methods were harsh, yes, but harshness was necessary in an age where weakness meant destruction.

Balancing Faith and Tradition

The scholars of Timbuktu accused me of impiety, for I did not rule by Islam alone. But I was ruler of many peoples, not just Muslims. My empire stretched across lands where the spirits of the ancestors were honored as much as the words of the Qur’an. I respected both paths because unity required it. To force one way upon all would have broken the empire. Those who call this impiety fail to see that I preserved harmony.

Protector or Oppressor?

When rebellion stirred, I struck it down with fire. Some call that cruelty. But in truth, rebellion would have torn apart what I built. I punished those who threatened the empire, yet I rewarded loyalty and gave prosperity to those who stood with me. My people called me their shield, for I guarded their homes, their fields, and their families. To them, I was not a tyrant, but a protector.

Leo Africanus: The View of the Scholar

When I heard the stories told in Timbuktu and Gao, the scholars spoke of Sunni Ali with bitterness. They said he showed little respect for Islam, that he oppressed clerics, and that he ruled through fear. His reputation among them was that of a man cruel and suspicious, one who valued conquest over learning. These voices cannot be dismissed, for they reveal how deeply his actions cut into the city’s scholarly life.

The Fear of His Wrath

Travelers and merchants told me tales of his punishments, of whole communities that suffered for resisting his will. They remembered his campaigns not only as victories but as times of terror. While his armies brought Songhai to greatness, they also left scars upon those who valued peace. His name inspired both admiration and fear, and often both at once.

A Legacy Divided

As I recorded my observations, I saw that Sunni Ali was a man of contradictions. Among common folk and warriors, he was celebrated as the founder of empire. Among scholars and men of religion, he was condemned as an oppressor. Perhaps both are true. He was the force that built Songhai into greatness, but he did so with methods that some would always see as tyranny. In the end, his legacy is not one voice, but many.

Role of Religion and Conflict with Scholars – Told by Africanus and Pasha

Leo Africanus: The Markets of Timbuktu

When I walked through the bustling markets of Timbuktu, I saw wealth displayed in every corner—gold dust, ivory, salt, and fine cloth. Yet among these treasures, there was also another trade: the sale of human beings. Slaves were brought in from wars, raids, and distant lands, and they were exchanged for horses, arms, and goods from the north. The people of Songhai did not hide this trade; it was woven into the fabric of daily life.

Caravans Across the Desert

I joined caravans that crossed the Sahara, and among the goods carried on camelback were men, women, and children in chains. Some were sold in Morocco, others taken further to Egypt or even to the Ottoman lands. I could not help but see the suffering etched on their faces, though the merchants spoke only of profit. To them, slaves were part of commerce, as common as salt or gold.

A Cost Behind Prosperity

The empire of Songhai was great, but much of its wealth was built upon this traffic in human lives. Scholars often celebrated Timbuktu for its learning, and rulers for their power, but the truth is that slaves were one of the foundations of this prosperity. To overlook this fact is to see only part of the story.

Judda Pasha: Morocco’s Demand

What Leo Africanus describes is true, yet Morocco too was deeply tied to this trade. The Sultan of Morocco sought not only Songhai’s gold and salt but also its steady supply of slaves. Captives taken in war or captured by Songhai’s armies were sold northward, and Moroccan markets thrived on this flow of human property. We profited from it, as did Songhai, and neither side can claim innocence.

The Machinery of Empire

Slaves built armies, carried goods, and served rulers. In Morocco, some were trained as soldiers in our ranks, trusted for their loyalty when taken far from their homes. In Songhai, they worked fields, rowed boats, and were sold into caravans that crossed the desert. The empire’s prosperity relied on this system, and so did ours. It was harsh, but it was the reality of power in our time.

The Question of Ethics

You ask of ethics, but in my world, slavery was seen as the order of things. Victors in war claimed the vanquished, and the trade in slaves became a chain that linked empires. Perhaps future ages will judge us, but in my day, no ruler who sought wealth and power could reject the profits of this commerce. Songhai embraced it, Morocco embraced it, and together we built fortunes upon it.

The Ethics of the Slave Trade – Told by Leo Africanus and Judda Pasha

Leo Africanus: The Markets of Timbuktu

When I walked through the bustling markets of Timbuktu, I saw wealth displayed in every corner—gold dust, ivory, salt, and fine cloth. Yet among these treasures, there was also another trade: the sale of human beings. Slaves were brought in from wars, raids, and distant lands, and they were exchanged for horses, arms, and goods from the north. The people of Songhai did not hide this trade; it was woven into the fabric of daily life.

Caravans Across the Desert

I joined caravans that crossed the Sahara, and among the goods carried on camelback were men, women, and children in chains. Some were sold in Morocco, others taken further to Egypt or even to the Ottoman lands. I could not help but see the suffering etched on their faces, though the merchants spoke only of profit. To them, slaves were part of commerce, as common as salt or gold.

A Cost Behind Prosperity

The empire of Songhai was great, but much of its wealth was built upon this traffic in human lives. Scholars often celebrated Timbuktu for its learning, and rulers for their power, but the truth is that slaves were one of the foundations of this prosperity. To overlook this fact is to see only part of the story.

Judda Pasha: Morocco’s Demand

What Leo Africanus describes is true, yet Morocco too was deeply tied to this trade. The Sultan of Morocco sought not only Songhai’s gold and salt but also its steady supply of slaves. Captives taken in war or captured by Songhai’s armies were sold northward, and Moroccan markets thrived on this flow of human property. We profited from it, as did Songhai, and neither side can claim innocence.

The Machinery of Empire

Slaves built armies, carried goods, and served rulers. In Morocco, some were trained as soldiers in our ranks, trusted for their loyalty when taken far from their homes. In Songhai, they worked fields, rowed boats, and were sold into caravans that crossed the desert. The empire’s prosperity relied on this system, and so did ours. It was harsh, but it was the reality of power in our time.

The Question of Ethics

You ask of ethics, but in my world, slavery was seen as the order of things. Victors in war claimed the vanquished, and the trade in slaves became a chain that linked empires. Perhaps future ages will judge us, but in my day, no ruler who sought wealth and power could reject the profits of this commerce. Songhai embraced it, Morocco embraced it, and together we built fortunes upon it.

The Fragility of Empire – Told by Judda Pasha and Leo Africanus

Judda Pasha: A Great Empire Brought Low

When I marched into Songhai, I expected a long and difficult campaign. The empire stretched vast across the Niger, with armies said to number in the tens of thousands. Yet when we met them at Tondibi, my small force of fewer than five thousand men, armed with muskets and cannon, crushed them in a single battle. Their power dissolved almost overnight. I was astonished at how easily so great an empire could fall.

The Weakness Beneath the Surface

Songhai looked mighty, but it was fragile. Its rulers struggled to keep distant provinces loyal, and succession disputes weakened the throne. The empire depended too much on its trade routes, so when we seized control of the Niger and disrupted the flow of goods, its foundation cracked. A true empire should endure the loss of one battle, yet Songhai collapsed almost at once. To me, this showed its greatness was only skin-deep.

Leo Africanus: Cracks in the Empire

Long before Judda Pasha’s invasion, I had walked the streets of Timbuktu and Gao, and I saw both wealth and weakness. The cities were rich with merchants and scholars, but beyond their walls, villages were restless. The scholars resented rulers who mixed Islam with traditional beliefs, while soldiers often placed loyalty to commanders above loyalty to the throne. Even in times of prosperity, unity was fragile.

The Dangers of Size and Distance

Songhai’s greatness was also its burden. From the forests of the south to the deserts of the north, its lands were too vast to govern easily. Roads and rivers connected the empire, but distance bred disobedience. When rulers died, succession disputes split families and provinces alike. A single strong king could hold it together, but without him, the empire’s vastness became its weakness.

The Illusion of Stability

I was not surprised when Morocco defeated Songhai. The empire appeared strong, but its strength relied on constant control of trade and loyalty from provinces that were always ready to turn away. Its rulers built a realm of riches and learning, yet they could not bind it securely. In the end, the fall of Songhai reminds us that even the mightiest kingdoms, without firm foundations, are no more lasting than the sand beneath them.

The Sunni–Askia Power Struggle – Told by Askia Muhammad I and Sunni Ali

Askia Muhammad: Claim to RuleWhen I rose against Sunni Baru in 1493, I did so not out of greed for the throne, but out of duty to my faith and my people. Sunni Ali, though a great conqueror, refused to embrace Islam fully, and his son Baru walked the same path. The scholars of Timbuktu condemned such rulers, and I agreed with them. I believed only a man who upheld Islam could rightfully lead Songhai. At Anfao, I defeated Baru’s forces, and by victory, I claimed legitimacy as both ruler and defender of the faith.

The Mandate of Religion

A kingdom as vast and diverse as Songhai needed unity, and I saw that unity in Islam. By embracing the scholars, by upholding sharia, and by making pilgrimage to Mecca, I gave our empire recognition in the wider Muslim world. My seizure of power may have been through the sword, but it was sanctified by faith. Without Islam, Songhai would have been strong in body but weak in spirit. I gave it both.

Sunni Ali: The Family’s Right

Even from beyond the grave, I cannot stay silent. My son, Sunni Baru, was my rightful heir. He was born into the dynasty that I founded with blood and conquest. Legitimacy comes not from scholars or from faraway lands but from the right of family succession and the will of the people who followed me. Askia Muhammad overthrew my son with the excuse of religion, but in truth, he broke the rightful chain of rule.

The Strength of Conquest

I built Songhai with the sword. Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné fell to me and became the heart of the empire. Baru inherited not only the throne but the strength I left behind. To dismiss him because he did not bow to scholars is to deny the foundation of Songhai itself. Empires are not held together by prayer alone, but by the power to defend and expand. Baru carried that power, and his defeat was not the loss of legitimacy, but the loss of fortune on a battlefield.

The Question of Authority

In the end, our struggle was one of ideas. I believed in balance, tradition, and the inheritance of rule through family. Askia Muhammad believed in the supremacy of Islam and the right of a man to seize power if he claimed divine sanction. The Battle of Anfao did not only decide who sat on the throne but also what kind of empire Songhai would become. Some will say Askia brought glory through law and faith; others will say I forged an empire through strength and courage. History remembers us both, yet still asks: what gives a man the right to rule?